Table 1 Study inclusion and exclusion criteria

Inclusion criteria

 1. 18–65 years of age

 2. Low back pain that has persisted for at least 3 months and causes pain on most days (more days than not) over the past 6 months.

 3. Average pain intensity ≥ 4 out of 10 for the past week.

Exclusion criteria

 1. Diagnosis of a systemic rheumatic disease or condition (e.g., rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus, fibromyalgia).

 2. Asthma, breathing problems, or a respiratory disorder (e.g., chronic obstructive pulmonary disease).

 3. Daily use of opioids.

 4. Uncontrolled hypertension (i.e., systolic blood pressure/diastolic blood pressure > 150/95), orthostatic hypotension (e.g., issues with fainting), or cardiovascular or peripheral arterial disease.

 5. Current or past diagnosis of a neurological disease (e.g., Parkinson’s, multiple sclerosis, epilepsy, vasovagal syncope) or evidence of previous brain injury, including stroke and traumatic brain injury.

 6. Serious psychiatric disorder requiring hospitalization within the past 12 months.

 7. Current substance use disorder or history of hospitalization for treatment of a substance use disorder.

 8. Current participation in another research study involving an intervention or treatment.

 9. Currently pregnant

 10. Any significant comorbidities or issues that, in the opinion of the investigators, could interfere with the study or lead to deleterious effects for the participant.