Table 1 Inclusion and exclusion criteria

Aged 65 years or older

Patients with radiculopathy, evidence of nerve root compromise, and/or intermittent neurogenic claudication

Non-specific low back pain (within the boundaries of the thoracolumbar junction to gluteal folds) of less than 3-month duration

Patients with medically diagnosed fibromyalgia, a primary chronic pain condition^a, peripheral neuropathy

Diagnosis of at least one of the target comorbidities: coronary heart disease, hypertension, type 2 diabetes, obesity, chronic obstructive pulmonary disorder, and depression

Diagnosis of serious pathology in the spine (such as fracture, malignancy or metastatic disease, cauda equina syndrome)

Bayliss measure of illness burden score of 3 or above for at least one of the target comorbidities

Physiotherapy or chiropractic treatment for their low back pain in the last 3 months

Sufficient comprehension of the English language to understand exercise instructions

Inability to participate in treatment, e.g. due to transport problems, or unable to mobilise independently

Patients with an unstable health condition or at risk of a serious adverse event as evaluated by a medical specialist

Patients with psychosis disorders, posttraumatic stress disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, autism, anorexia nervosa, and bulimia nervosa and patients with an abuse disorder