Table 4 Anthropometry and Apgar scores at birth, and anthropometry, neurodevelopmental outcomes and breastfeeding practices at 12 weeks postpartum for infants exposed to food-insecure conditions compared to those who were not

Do you worry about food runout?

No

Yes

p value (unadjusted)

p value (adjusted)

Hedge’s g or RR (95% CI)

ω²

n = 14

n = 17

 Gestational age at delivery (weeks)

38.8 ± 1.81

38.4 ± 1.66

0.49

–

–

–

 EBF at 12 weeks PP (n [%])

11 (78.6)

7 (41.4)

0.07

–

–

–

 Infant anthropometry and Apgar at birth¹

  Head circumference z-score

− 1.49 ± 0.99

− 0.81 ± 1.46

0.15

0.35

0.37 (− 0.40, 1.14)

0.00

  Weight z-score

− 0.59 ± 1.00

− 1.08 ± 1.10

0.22

0.20

0.51 (− 0.27, 1.29)

0.02

  Length z-score

− 1.20 ± 1.41

− 1.05 ±. 2.10

0.82

0.35

0.38 (− 0.41, 1.16)

0.00

  BMI z-score

− 0.02 ± 1.81

− 0.94 ± 1.64

0.16

0.59

0.22 (− 0.56, 1.00)

0.00

  Brain-to-body weight ratio

9.65 (8.90, 10.3)

10.4 (9.70, 12.0)

0.05

0.17

0.56 (− 0.23, 1.34)

0.04

  Stunting at birth² (n [%])

3 (21.4)

8 (47.1)

0.26

–

2.04 (0.67, 6.21)

–

  Apgar 1-min score

9.00 (8.75, 9.00)

8.00 (8.00, 9.00)

0.02

0.18

0.55 (− 0.25, 1.33)

0.03

  Apgar 5-min score

10.0 (9.00, 10.0)

9.00 (9.00, 9.00)

0.02

0.01

1.19 (0.32, 2.03)

0.21

 Infant anthropometry in infants aged 12 weeks¹

  Head circumference z-score

− 1.47 (− 2.12, − 0.97)

− 1.07 (− 1.94, − 0.62)

0.36

0.54

0.25 (− 0.53, 1.01)

0.00

  Weight z-score

− 0.08 (− 0.77, 0.23)

− 0.45 (− 1.26, 0.14)

0.45

0.22

0.52 (− 0.30, 1.32)

0.02

  Length z-score

− 0.84 ± 0.64

− 1.52 ± 0.99

0.04

0.01

1.14 (0.29, 1.96)

0.17

  BMI z-score

0.37 ± 0.96

0.19 ± 1.74

0.72

0.73

0.14 (− 0.66, 0.94)

0.00

  Brain-to-body weight ratio

7.40 (6.84, 7.74)

7.61 (7.11, 7.91)

0.18

0.18

0.70 (− 0.32, 1.69)

0.04

  Weight gain (birth to 12 weeks PP; kg/day)

0.03 ± 0.01

0.03 ± 0.01

0.49

0.34

0.41 (− 0.42, 1.22)

0.00

  Stunting at 12 weeks postpartum² (n [%])

1 (7.14)

4 (23.5)

0.35

–

3.29 (0.41, 26.2)

–

 Attainment of all 1-3 month GMCD milestones³ (n [%])

n = 13

n = 9

  Expressive language

13 (100)

8 (88.9)

0.41

–

0.89 (0.71, 1.12)

–

  Receptive language

11 (84.6)

7 (77.8)

1.00

–

0.92 (0.61, 1.40)

–

  Large movement

13 (100)

6 (66.7)

0.06

–

0.67 (0.42, 1.06)

–

  Fine movement

13 (100)

9 (100)

-

–

–

–

  Relating and response behaviour

13 (100)

7 (77.8)

0.16

–

0.78 (0.55, 1.10)

–

  Play behaviour

12 (92.3)

6 (66.7)

0.26

–

0.72 (0.44, 1.18)

–

Do you experience food runout?

No

Yes

p value (unadjusted)

p value (adjusted)

Hedge’s g or RR (95% CI)

ω²

n = 16

n = 15

 Gestational age at delivery (weeks)

38.6 ± 1.79

38.5 ± 1.69

0.96

–

–

–

 EBF at 12 weeks PP (n [%])

13 (81.3)

5 (33.3)

0.01

–

0.41 (0.19, 0.87)

–

 Infant anthropometry and Apgar at birth¹

  Head circumference z-score

− 1.39 ± 0.96

− 0.82 ± 1.56

0.23

0.50

0.28 (− 0.52, 1.07)

0.00

  Weight z-score

− 0.59 ± 0.94

− 1.14 ± 1.15

0.16

0.14

0.62 (− 0.20, 1.42)

0.04

  Length z-score

− 1.21 ± 1.36

− 1.02 ± 2.20

0.78

0.15

0.60 (− 0.22, 1.41)

0.04

  BMI z-score

− 0.02 ± 1.68

− 1.06 ± 1.69

0.10

0.72

0.15 (− 0.65, 0.94)

0.00

  Brain-to-body weight ratio

9.78 (8.95, 10.4)

10.5 (9.54, 12.0)

0.09

0.19

0.55 (− 0.28, 1.36)

0.03

  Stunting at birth² (n [%])

4 (25.0)

7 (46.7)

0.45

–

1.75 (0.65, 4.75)

–

  Apgar 1-min score

9.00 (8.25, 9.00)

8.00 (8.00, 9.00)

0.02

0.17

0.58 (− 0.25, 1.39)

0.03

  Apgar 5-min score

9.50 (9.00, 10.0)

9.00 (9.00, 9.00)

0.006

0.02

1.05 (0.18, 1.90)

0.24

 Infant anthropometry in infants aged 12 weeks¹

  Head circumference z-score

− 1.47 (− 2.21, − 0.88)

− 1.07 (− 1.94, − 0.62)

0.32

0.90

0.05 (− 0.74, 0.84)

0.00

  Weight z-score

− 0.08 (− 0.66, 0.26)

− 0.46 (− 1.47, 0.11)

0.28

0.07

0.82 (− 0.08, 1.69)

0.08

  Length z-score

− 0.85 ± 0.61

− 1.60 ± 1.02

0.02

0.002

1.38 (0.48, 2.25)

0.22

  BMI z-score

0.41 ± 0.96

0.11 ± 1.82

0.58

0.43

0.35 (− 0.51, 1.20)

0.00

  Brain-to-body weight ratio

7.21 (6.88, 7.69)

7.72 (7.29, 8.12)

0.03

0.17

0.75 (− 0.32, 1.80)

0.04

  Weight gain (birth to 12 weeks PP; kg/day)

0.03 ± 0.01

0.03 ± 0.01

0.38

0.17

0.64 (− 0.27, 1.54)

0.04

  Stunting at 12 weeks postpartum² (n [%])

1 (6.25)

4 (26.7)

0.17

–

4.27 (0.54, 34.0)

–

 Attainment of all 1–3-month GMCD milestones³ (n [%])

n = 14

n = 8

  Expressive language

14 (100)

7 (87.5)

0.36

–

0.88 (0.67, 1.14)

–

  Receptive language

11 (78.6)

7 (87.5)

1.00

–

1.11 (0.76, 1.63)

–

  Large movement

13 (92.9)

6 (75.0)

0.53

–

0.91 (0.53, 1.24)

–

  Fine movement

14 (100)

8 (100)

–

–

–

–

  Relating and response behaviour

13 (92.9)

7 (87.5)

1.00

–

0.94 (0.70, 1.27)

–

  Play behaviour

12 (85.7)

6 (75.0)

–

0.88 (0.56, 1.38)

–

Are you able to afford balanced meals?

Yes

No

p value (unadjusted)

p value (adjusted)

Hedge’s g or RR (95% CI)

ω²

n = 9

n = 22

 Gestational age at delivery (weeks)

38.2 ± 1.99

38.7 ± 1.62

0.51

–

–

–

 EBF at 12 weeks PP (n [%])

8 (88.9)

9 (42.9)

0.04

–

0.51 (0.31, 0.85)

–

 Infant anthropometry and Apgar at birth¹

  Head circumference z-score

− 1.71 ± 1.14

− 0.87 ± 1.30

0.10

0.13

0.68 (− 0.20, 1.55)

0.05

  Weight z-score

− 0.83 ± 0.93

− 0.87 ± 1.14

0.94

0.99

0.004 (− 0.85, 0.85)

0.00

  Length z-score

− 0.98 ± 1.35

− 1.18 ± 1.99

0.79

0.19

0.59 (− 0.30, 1.46)

0.03

  BMI z-score

− 0.64 ± 1.61

− 0.50 ± 1.83

0.84

0.35

0.42 (− 0.45, 1.29)

0.00

  Brain-to-body weight ratio

9.54 (8.97, 10.4)

10.1 (9.38, 11.4)

0.31

0.37

0.40 (− 0.47, 1.25)

0.00

  Stunting at birth² (n [%])

2 (22.2)

9 (40.9)

0.42

–

1.93 (0.52, 7.21)

–

  Apgar 1-min score

9.00 (8.50, 9.00)

8.00 (8.00, 9.00)

0.11

0.11

0.73 (− 0.16, 1.60)

0.05

  Apgar 5-min score

10.0 (9.00, 10.0)

9.00 (9.00, 9.00)

0.04

0.06

0.88 (− 0.02, 1.76)

0.10

 Infant anthropometry in infants aged 12 weeks¹

  Head circumference z-score

− 1.47 (− 2.17, − 0.80)

− 1.34 (− 1.95, − 0.79)

0.71

0.48

0.31 (− 0.55, 1.16)

0.00

  Weight z-score

− 0.41 (− 0.83, 0.38)

− 0.13 (− 1.12, 0.14)

0.77

0.11

0.75 (− 0.16, 1.64)

0.06

  Length z-score

− 1.14 (− 1.45, − 0.69)

− 1.02 (− 1.80, − 0.38)

0.80

0.21

0.55 (− 0.32, 1.41)

0.02

  BMI z-score

0.64 ± 1.00

0.12 ± 1.55

0.36

0.18

0.62 (− 0.28, 1.51)

0.04

  Brain-to-body weight ratio

7.48 (7.05, 7.68)

7.59 (7.03, 7.88)

0.56

0.41

0.39 (− 0.52, 1.28)

0.00

  Weight gain (birth to 12 weeks PP; kg/day)

0.03 ± 0.01

0.03 ± 0.01

0.44

0.08

0.83 (− 0.10, 1.73)

0.08

  Stunting at 12 weeks postpartum² (n [%])

1 (11.0)

4 (18.2)

1.00

–

1.64 (0.21, 12.7)

–

 Attainment of all 1–3-month GMCD milestones³ (n[%])

n = 7

n = 15

  Expressive language

7 (100)

14 (93.3)

1.00

–

0.93 (0.82, 1.07)

–

  Receptive language

6 (85.7)

12 (80.0)

1.00

–

0.93 (0.63, 1.39)

–

  Large movement

7 (100)

12 (80.0)

0.52

–

0.80 (0.62, 1.03)

–

  Fine movement

7 (100)

15 (100)

–

–

–

–

  Relating and response behaviour

7 (100)

13 (86.7)

1.00

–

0.87 (0.71, 1.06)

–

  Play behaviour

7 (100)

11 (73.3)

0.26

–

0.73 (0.54, 1.00)

–