| HIV-unexposed-uninfected | HIV-exposed-uninfected | p value (unadjusted) | p value (adjusted) | Hedge’s g or RR (95% CI) | ω2 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Infant outcomes at birth | ||||||
 | n = 22 | n = 32 |  |  |  |  |
 Infant sex (% male) | 45.5 | 34.4 | 0.57 | – | – | – |
 Gestational age at delivery (weeks) | 38.4 ± 1.56 | 38.7 ± 1.69 | 0.48 | – | – | – |
 < 37 weeks GA (n) | 2 | 3 | 1.00 | – | – | – |
 < 37 weeks GA (weeks) | 35.5 (35.0, 36.0) | 36.0 (35.0, 36.0) | 1.00 | – | – | – |
 Infant anthropometry1 | ||||||
  Weight z-score | − 0.57 ± 1.15 | − 0.76 ± 0.96 | 0.52 | 0.48 | 0.22 (− 0.38, 0.82) | 0.00 |
  Length z-score | − 1.33 (− 3.20, 0.45) | − 1.65 (− 2.33, − 0.94) | 0.55 | 0.89 | 0.04 (− 0.57, 0.65) | 0.00 |
  BMI z-score | − 0.15 (− 1.76, 1.80) | 0.09 (− 0.81, 0.97) | 0.89 | 0.39 | 0.27 (− 0.35, 0.88) | 0.00 |
  Head circumference z-score | − 0.33 ± 1.19 | − 1.58 ± 1.22 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | 1.15 (0.50, 1.80) | 0.17 |
  Brain-to-body weight ratio | 10.2 (9.77, 11.3) | 9.60 (8.88, 10.4) | 0.06 | 0.05 | 0.62 (− 0.001, 1.24) | 0.06 |
  Stunting at birth2 (n [%]) | 7 (33.3) | 14 (43.8) | 0.57 | – | 1.31 (0.64, 2.70) | – |
 Apgar score | ||||||
  1 min | 9.00 (8.00, 9.00) | 9.00 (8.00, 9.00) | 0.96 | 0.43 | 0.24 (− 0.36, 0.85) | 0.00 |
  5 min | 9.00 (9.00, 10.0) | 9.00 (9.00, 9.00) | 0.79 | 0.95 | 0.02 (− 0.59, 0.62) | 0.00 |
 Immune measures | n = 21 | n = 32 |  |  |  |  |
  Total CD14+ | 10.5 (8.19, 12.2) | 8.76 (6.23, 12.0) | 0.10 | 0.08 | 0.56 (− 0.06, 1.19) | 0.05 |
  %CCR2-positive CD14+ monocytes | 82.9 ± 6.91 | 86.6 ± 4.85 | 0.03 | 0.09 | 0.55 (− 0.08, 1.17) | 0.04 |
  Monocyte sub-populations (%) | ||||||
   Classical (CD14++/CD16−) | 67.8 ± 13.7 | 70.8 ± 13.3 | 0.44 | 0.50 | 0.21 (− 0.40, 0.83) | 0.00 |
   Intermediate (CD14++/CD16+) | 14.7 (9.83, 21.2) | 12.9 (9.35, 17.0) | 0.14 | 0.36 | 0.29 (− 0.33, 0.90) | 0.00 |
   Non-classical (CD14+/CD16+) | 8.40 (4.26, 15.4) | 8.44 (4.17, 13.0) | 0.74 | 0.97 | 0.01 (− 0.60, 0.62) | 0.00 |
  %CCR2-positive monocyte sub-populations | ||||||
   Classical (CD14++/CD16−) | 94.7 (92.2, 97.2) | 97.3 (94.6, 98.4) | 0.02 | 0.01 | 0.84 (0.20, 1.47) | 0.11 |
   Intermediate (CD14++/CD16+) | 60.4 (51.4, 71.9) | 68.2 (62.3, 80.9) | 0.07 | 0.25 | 0.37 (− 0.26, 1.00) | 0.01 |
   Non-classical (CD14+/CD16+) | 8.05 (4.00, 15.4) | 6.88 (3.55, 15.1) | 0.73 | 0.93 | 0.03 (− 0.59, 0.64) | 0.00 |
  CCR2 MFI on monocyte sub-populations | ||||||
   Classical (CD14++/CD16−) | 5.25 (4.49, 6.63) | 6.29 (5.59, 6.81) | 0.04 | 0.08 | 0.57 (− 0.06, 1.19) | 0.05 |
   Intermediate (CD14++/CD16+) | 2.33 (2.16, 2.65) | 2.87 (2.34, 3.48) | 0.003 | 0.04 | 0.65 (0.02, 1.27) | 0.06 |
   Non-classical (CD14+/CD16+) | 1.65 (1.55, 1.92) | 1.70 (1.49, 2.22) | 0.52 | 0.72 | 0.12 (− 0.50, 0.73) | 0.00 |
Infant outcomes at 12 weeks postpartum | ||||||
 | n = 10 | n = 21 |  |  |  |  |
 Infant sex (% male) | 50.0 | 33.3 | 0.45 | – | – | – |
 Infant age at follow-up (weeks) | 10.4 (10.1, 12.1) | 12.0 (10.1, 13.3) | 0.25 | – | – | – |
 EBF at follow-up (n [%]) | 4 (40.0) | 14 (81.0) | 0.25 | – | 1.67 (0.74, 3.77) | – |
 Infant anthropometry1 | ||||||
  Head circumference z-score | − 0.73 (1.40, − 0.58) | − 1.47 (− 2.17, − 0.97) | 0.03 | 0.66 | 0.20 (− 0.70, 1.10) | 0.00 |
  Weight z-score | 0.12 (− 1.02, 0.56) | − 0.46 (− 0.93, 0.02) | 0.24 | 0.67 | 0.20 (-0.72, 1.11) | 0.00 |
  Length z-score | − 0.95 (− 2.74, − 0.27) | − 1.18 (− 1.69, − 0.62) | 0.85 | 0.67 | 0.20 (− 0.71, 1.09) | 0.00 |
  BMI z-score | 0.44 ± 1.92 | 0.19 ± 1.12 | 0.65 | 0.76 | 0.15 (− 0.77, 1.06) | 0.00 |
  Brain-to-body weight ratio | 7.39 (6.67, 8.04) | 7.59 (7.08, 7.83) | 0.50 | 0.51 | 0.32 (− 0.63, 1.27) | 0.00 |
  Weight gain (birth to 12 weeks PP; kg/day) | 0.04 ± 0.01 | 0.03 ± 0.01 | 0.44 | 0.45 | 0.36 (− 0.57, 1.27) | 0.00 |
  Stunting at 12 weeks postpartum2 (n [%]) | 3 (30.0) | 2 (9.52) | 0.30 | – | 0.32 (0.06, 1.61) | – |
 Immune measures | n = 10 | n = 17 |  |  |  |  |
  Total CD14+ | 7.40 (5.69, 9.78) | 7.16 (5.69, 8.98) | 0.74 | 0.23 | 0.65 (− 0.42, 1.70) | 0.03 |
  %CCR2-positive CD14+ monocytes | 80.3 (74.9, 85.3) | 76.0 (63.5, 80.2) | 0.13 | 0.08 | 0.99 (− 0.12, 2.06) | 0.12 |
  Monocyte sub-populations (%) | ||||||
   Classical (CD14++/CD16−) | 68.0 (67.5, 75.3) | 64.1 (57.3, 72.9) | 0.09 | 0.11 | 0.90 (− 0.19, 1.97) | 0.08 |
   Intermediate (CD14++/CD16+) | 8.49 (6.61, 13.7) | 12.6 (8.95, 22.3) | 0.08 | 0.18 | 0.74 (− 0.34, 1.79) | 0.04 |
   Non-classical (CD14+/CD16+) | 16.7 ± 4.94 | 19.4 ± 5.85 | 0.22 | 0.14 | 0.82 (− 0.27, 1.88) | 0.06 |
  %CCR2-positive monocyte sub-populations | ||||||
   Classical (CD14++/CD16−) | 93.3 (89.3, 96.6) | 94.7 (93.5, 96.2) | 0.47 | 0.62 | 0.27 (− 0.77, 1.30) | 0.00 |
   Intermediate (CD14++/CD16+) | 44.8 ± 23.1 | 56.2 ± 12.2 | 0.17 | 0.64 | 0.25 (− 0.79, 1.28) | 0.00 |
   Non-classical (CD14+/CD16+) | 2.14 (1.02, 3.49) | 3.42 (1.70, 4.32) | 0.26 | 0.55 | 0.33 (− 0.72, 1.36) | 0.00 |
  CCR2 MFI on monocyte sub-populations | ||||||
   Classical (CD14++/CD16−) | 4.67 (3.83, 6.04) | 4.46 (4.03, 4.89) | 0.25 | 0.08 | 1.03 (− 0.13, 2.17) | 0.12 |
   Intermediate (CD14++/CD16+) | 2.19 (1.95, 3.14) | 2.22 (1.89, 2.49) | 0.50 | 0.02 | 1.45 (0.22, 2.64) | 0.26 |
   Non-classical (CD14+/CD16+) | 1.55 (1.40, 2.52) | 1.64 (1.40, 1.93) | 0.85 | 0.31 | 0.58 (− 0.53, 1.68) | 0.01 |
 Attainment of all 1–3-month GMCD milestones (n [%])3 | n = 8 | n = 14 |  |  |  |  |
 Expressive language | 7 (87.5) | 13 (92.9) | 0.36 | – | 1.14 (0.88, 1.49) | – |
 Receptive language | 6 (75.0) | 12 (85.7) | 0.60 | – | 1.14 (0.73, 1.80) | – |
 Large movement | 6 (75.0) | 13 (92.9) | 0.53 | – | 1.24 (0.81, 1.90) | – |
 Fine movement | 8 (100) | 14 (100) | – | – | – | – |
 Relating and response behaviour | 7 (87.5) | 13 (92.9) | 1.00 | – | 1.06 (0.79, 1.43) | – |
 Play behaviour | 5 (62.5) | 13 (92.9) | 0.12 | – | 1.49 (0.85, 2.59) | – |