Table 6 Claims used in main episodes of IHC Podcast versions 2 and 3

Episode 1

Most treatments have both good and bad effects (benefits and harms)

“There are herbal medicines that cure malaria and do not have any bad effects.”

The claim that herbal treatments do not have any bad effects is untrustworthy since most treatments can have both good and bad effects. How sure can one be that herbal treatments are indeed without any bad effects?

Episode 2

Knowledge about the effects of treatments requires comparisons

“Zmapp, a new investigational drug in evaluation can cure Ebola Virus Disease”

Zmapp was an investigational drug at the time. Evaluation of Zmapp was not yet complete at the time of production but it was given to some health workers who subsequently improved. Given the information available at the time, how sure could we be that Zmapp cures Ebola Virus Disease?

“Eating quail eggs can make one very strong.”*

There was no known evaluation at the time comparing taking quail eggs to taking nothing or to anything else, to establish if eating the quail eggs makes one stronger. How sure can one be that eating quail eggs will make one stronger in the absence of any fair evaluation of their effects?

Episode 3

Personal experiences are not a reliable basis for claims about treatment effects

“Putting cooking oil on a burn will heal it since it has worked for someone else before”

The claim was based on someone’s personal experience using cooking oil on burns wounds. How reliable are personal stories (anecdotes) at predicting how treatments will work?

Episode 4

An effect on an outcome may be associated with a treatment, but it may not be the treatment causing the effect to happen

“A lot of women gain weight when they take contraceptive pills.”

This claim was based on the association between women using contraceptives and adding weight. Is it possible that an effect on an outcome could be associated with a treatment when it is not the treatment causing the effect?

Episode 5

How long a treatment has been used or how many people have used it is not a reliable basis for judging the effects of treatments.

“An herbal treatment called ‘kyogero’ stops babies from getting infections because many people have used it for a long time.”

This claim is based on the finding that many people have used the herbal treatment for a long time. Does the finding that many people have used a treatment for a long time mean that the treatment is effective and/or safe?

Episode 6

Opinions of experts can be misleading if they are not based on reliable evidence

According to one expert, “taking some hot pepper will heal stomach ulcers”.

The claim was based simply on what an expert said- an expert opinion. Is it possible that experts can be wrong in their opinions, for example, if they are not based on the best evidence?

Episode 7

Comparisons of treatments should be fair

“Medical male circumcision reduces the chances of acquiring HIV.”

This claim was based on a fair comparison of medical male circumcision to prevent HIV and no circumcision. What are fair comparisons? Do fair comparisons of treatments offer a reliable basis for determining if treatments are effective and/or safe?

*“Group support treatment is helpful for someone who has depression and HIV because the treatment has been compared with other alternatives and found to be effective.”

This claim was based on a fair comparison of using group support treatment and not using it for people with depression. What are fair comparisons? Do fair comparisons of treatments offer a reliable basis for determining if treatments are effective and/or safe?

Episode 8

Single comparisons of treatments or comparisons with very few people can be misleading

According to findings from a small study: “washing hands with soap does not stop children from getting diarrhoea”.

The claim was based on a single study with very few participants. To what extent can we rely on single studies with very few participants?